Kerja sosial adalah satu bidang yang mempunyai keistimewaan yang tersendiri dari segi tugas dan tanggungjawab mereka terhadap pelbagai pihak yang memerlukan. Ianya bukan sesuatu yang baru dan tidak mungkin akan terpupus, oleh kerana profesion ini berteraskan prinsip dan falsafah kemanusian yang diperkukuhkan dengan ikatan ilmu hasil daripada penyelidikan dan pemerhatian yang saintifik seterusnya wujud dalam kerangka amalan kerja yang mantap. Terdapat lapan nilai yang dalam konsep ‘1 Malaysia’. Nilai-nilai murni ini diharap dapat menyatu padukan rakyat Malaysia dengan fikiran dan tindakan yang menjurus kepada satu matlamat iaitu untuk negara. Lapan nilai-nilai tersebut adalah budaya kecemerlangan, ketabahan, rendah hati, penerimaan, kesetiaan, meritokrasi, pendidikan dan integriti. Jika kita lihat dari aspek antara nilai-nilai yang ditekankan dalam konsep 1 Malaysia di atas, nilai-nilai ini juga ditekankan dalam kerja sosial sekali gus merangkumi praktis kerja sosial yang ada di negara kita
Umumnya, kerja sosial adalah satu profesion yang ingin membawa perubahan sosial kepada masyarakat secara umumnya pada peringkat pembentukan perkembangan individu. Dengan menggunakan pelbagai teori perlakuan manusia dan sistem sosial, kerja sosial terlibat pada pelbagai tahap interaksi manusia dan persekitaran kehidupan. Peranan praktis kerja sosial berfokus untuk mencapai keperluan manusia dan mengembangkan potensi dan sumber-sumbernya. Kerja sosial menjalankan praktis dalam 5 konteks, iaitu politik, geografi, sosioekonomi, budaya dan spiritual. Kelima-lima konteks ini mampu memberikan matlamat yang terarah dalam praktis kerja sosial. Prinsip kerja sosial adalah prinsip kemanusian yang sejagat (definisi yang diterima pakai IFSW General Meeting in Montreal Canada, July 2000).
Profesion kerja sosial mempunyai falsafah yang tersendiri yang merangkumi pelbagai pengertian ilmu. Ia juga berlandaskan etika kerja sosial yang menjadi garis panduan dalam melaksanakan profesion ini. Di samping itu, bidang ini menitikberatkan hak asasi yang dimiliki oleh setiap individu yang patut dijaga dan dipertahankan tanpa mengira status, usia, darjat, pangkat dan warna kulit yang boleh dikaitkan dengan 1 Malaysia pada hari ini. Prinsip etika kerja sosial juga adalah sesuatu yang begitu penting yang perlu diamalkan oleh pekerja sosial dalam menjaminkan kejayaan terhadap praktis serta profesion kerja sosial itu sendiri.
Praktis kerja sosial dengan kumpulan merupakan satu kaedah bekerja dengan individu-individu di dalam kumpulan yang terdiri daripada dua atau lebih orang untuk meningkatkan kefungsian sosial dan mencapai matlamat sosial. Kerja kumpulan ini adalah berdasarkan pengetahuan pekerja sosial terhadap keperluan kumpulan dan saling bergantungan di antara satu dengan lain. Kaedah ini bertujuan untuk mengurangkan dan menghapuskan halangan interakerja sosial dan bertujuan matlamat sosial.
Toseland dan Rivas (1998), mendefinisikan kerja kumpulan sebagai”... aktiviti bermatlamat yang dilaksanakan terhadap sekumpulan yang dilaksanakan terhadap sekumpulan orang untuk memenuhi keperluan sosioemosi dan menyempurnakan tugas yang dipertanggungjawabkan. Ativiti ini adalah dibentuk khusus untuk individu di dalam kumpulan dan kumpulan secara keseluruhan di dalam sistem yang memberi perkhidmatan.” Sebagai contoh pekerja sosial kumpulan mungkin menyasarkan untuk memulihkan ahli, mendidik mereka, membantu ahli untuk bersosialisasi atau menolong ahli dalam pembangunan diri.
Walaupun diakui bahawa profesion menolong amat diperlukan oleh masyarakat, terutamanya dalam konteks 1 Malaysia. Apabila perubahan dan kemajuan yang dikecapi dari semasa ke semasa turut membawa bersamanya natijah penyakit sosial, konflik dan ketidakseimbangan dalam masyarakat, kefahaman yang betul tentang profesion ini sering dikesampingan. Hasilnya kita akan cenderung memandang keperluan profesion ini hanyalah sebagai pembantu suka rela, tidak profesional, mempunyai kumpulan kumpulan sasar yang terdiri daripada mereka yang susah, terpinggir dan bermacam-macam lagi strereotaip lain.
Praktis kerja sosial menekankan elemen bekerjasama dan saling menghormati antara pekerja sosial dengan sistem persekitaran klien. Ini akan membentuk hubungan profesional antara pekerja sosial dengan klien. Penilaian dalam praktis pula haruslah meliputi analisis terhadap kelemahan dan kekuatan klien dalam menangani masalah yang wujud akibat daripada interaksi mereka secara keseluruhan dengan persekitaran sosial mereka. Kemahiran asas yang perlu ada untuk memastikan praktis dapat dijalankan secara berkesan seharusnya bermulanya dengan mewujudkan kemahiran dalam mengenal pasti isu-isu, mengumpul dan menganalisis maklumat, merancang dan membentuk kontrak, iaitu perjanjian profesional dengan klien, mengenal pasti alternatif untuk memilih intervensi yang berkesan, mengimplimentasikan tindakan yang bersesuaian, menjalankan prosedur penyelidikan yang sesuai untuk mengawal dan menilai hasil intervensi dan sehinggalah mewujudkan kemahiran untuk menyelia proses terminasi, iaitu menamatkan kontrak dan intervensi dengan klien.
Contoh kes yang boleh melibatkan kerja sosial, apabila kes sebagai pekerja sosial perubatan. Di Malaysia, kerja sosial semakin diterima oleh masyarakat. Ini adalah berdasarkan peningkatan penawaran program kerja sosial dari beberapa buah Universiti tempatan. Di Hospital besar juga, pekerja sosial telah di tempatkan bagi membantu pesakit dan mereka yang signifikin. Jesteru, pekerja sosial perlu melengkapkan diri dengan pengetahuan, kemahiran dan peluang bagi membantu individu dan mereka yang signifikan yang bakal atau telah kehilangan orang tersayang. Antara peranan boleh dimainkan oleh pekerja sosial perubatan adalah membantu klien dan keluarga memahami keadaan semasa terutama jika klien sedang menghidap penyakit yang boleh membawa maut. Adakalanya keluarga mahu bersama pesakit pada saat-saat akhir. Selepas kematian berlaku, pekerja sosial perlu membantu memahami keadaan seperti proses yang akan berlaku, perasaan normal yang akan dialami dan sebagainya. Apabila klien meninggal,adalah norma pekerja sosial turut mengalami kesedihan. Oleh itu, pekerja sosial mesti mencari jalan menanganinya supaya intervensi yang dilakukan adalah efektik.
Apapun peranan pekerja sosial di Malaysia, secara umumnya pekerja sosial mempunyai peranan untuk menangani kemusnahan sosial yang berlaku dalam masyarakat khususnya di dalam isu-isu yang melibatkan individu, kumpulan ataupun komuniti. Apabila timbulnya masalah yang serius dalam kehidupan manusia, terutamanya yang melibatkan hubungan antara sesama manusia ataupun sebarang masalah berkait dengan persekitaran sosial mereka, persoalan yang pasti timbul adalah sama ada pertolongan boleh diperoleh untuk menyelesaikan masalah-masalah yang dihadapi mereka. Pada ketika inilah profesion menolong seperti kerja sosial mendapat perhatian dan mula menjadi rujukan semua pihak. Di samping itu, usaha memantapkan profesion ini di dalam situasi tempatan seharusnya turut melibatkan latihan dan pendidikan bagi melahirkan lebih ramai lagi tenaga pengajar dalam bidang kerja sosial. Lebih banyak tenaga mahir yang mendalami bidang ini diperlukan supaya latihan dan kepakaran dapat diimplimentasikan ke dalam praktis di pelbagai “setting” yang memberikan perkhidmatan kebajikan sosial dan perkhidmatan manusia. Apa yang paling penting di sini, praktis kerja sosial dalam konteks 1 Malaysia ini adalah berlandaskan perpaduan antara kaum di mana setiap individu tidak kira bangsa atau agama layak mendapat bantuan daripada pekerja sosial.
RUJUKAN:
-Ezarina Zakaria,2006. Khidmat Sosial Di Malaysia(Prinsip Kerja Sosial).Penerbit Universiti Malaya
-Faizah Yunus,2006. Khidmat Sosial di Malaysia. Penerbit Malaya
-Samir Muhazzab Amin dan Winny Abdul, 2009. Pengantar Kerja Sosial. Kuala Lumpur: Utusan Publication & Distributions Sdn Bhd.
-Samir Muhazzab Amin dan Winny Abdul, 2008. Kemahiran Praktis Kerja Sosial. Selangor: Baraplas Kreatif Enterprise
-Siti Hajar Abu Bakar,2006. Kebajikan Sosial Aplikasi dalam Perkhidmatan Manusia: Penerbit Universiti Malaya
Khamis, 28 Januari 2010
Selasa, 26 Januari 2010
Groupwork Theory
Roles
Or we might think about the group in terms of roles.
Then we might ask what is the division of roles in the group?
We would he interested in issues of function, expectation and inter-dependency. This sort of approach
might, for instance, he used in team building to look at how different people can each make contributions
which may complement one another. Some useful theoretical material might he found in role theory, systems
theory, and sociology.
Process and stages
Or we might think of a group as a developing process.
We might then ask what stage of development has this group reached?
What is the overall lifespan of this group and how is its age affecting its functioning?
How did the present characteristics of the group evolve out of the previous stages and how do they
pave the way for future developments?
Tuckman and Lungren's ideas about group stages might help us.
Preoccupation
Or we might think about what is consciously or unconsciously preoccupying this group.
Is it behaving as if certain assumptions held?
Are issues like safety or inclusion or power or rules affecting what is being talked about in ways
that are unrecognised by the group members themselves?
Are such issues affecting the choice of language or symbolism or metaphors employed? For
instance, if a member of the group is holding everybody's attention at length with a description of a
film he saw about a family break up, is this because the group members sense a threat to the
integrity of the group itself which they cannot face discussing openly.
T-group theory might help us with some of these issues.
Norms
Or we might think about the group norms.
We might ask what rules seem to be operating and how were these established?
Who would have the power to change them?
How are they evolving?
What are they seemingly designed to achieve?
Task
Or we might think about the group, in terms of its implicit or explicit task.
Is this a group in which there is a preset agenda or not?
Is this a group in which one person holds the floor or "works" for a time and then another takes
over or is it one in which the members all interact fluidly and continuously?
Is this group concerned with here and now issues or with there and then ones?
Is there a shared sense of purpose?
Dynamics
Or we might think about the group in terms of its psychodynamics.
Then we would ask: What sentiments and motives lie behind the behaviour of the group members?
In what way are processes of rivalry, jealousy, identification, differentiation, power seeking,
projection, dependency, transference, etc. affecting the individuals in this group?
How can the group be understood on the analogy of a family?
Psychoanalytic theory might help.
Functional Approach
Or we might look at the interactions between group members functionally.
How do these interactions relate to the task of the group?
Are they functional or dysfunctional?
Some sociological theory such as Bales Interaction Analysis might help.
Interactions
Or we might look at the interactions qualitatively.
Are emotions expressed?
Are thoughts expressed?
RUJUKAN
Layari internet pada 27/01/2010 di website www.elementsuk.com/libraryofarticles/groupwork.pdf
Or we might think about the group in terms of roles.
Then we might ask what is the division of roles in the group?
We would he interested in issues of function, expectation and inter-dependency. This sort of approach
might, for instance, he used in team building to look at how different people can each make contributions
which may complement one another. Some useful theoretical material might he found in role theory, systems
theory, and sociology.
Process and stages
Or we might think of a group as a developing process.
We might then ask what stage of development has this group reached?
What is the overall lifespan of this group and how is its age affecting its functioning?
How did the present characteristics of the group evolve out of the previous stages and how do they
pave the way for future developments?
Tuckman and Lungren's ideas about group stages might help us.
Preoccupation
Or we might think about what is consciously or unconsciously preoccupying this group.
Is it behaving as if certain assumptions held?
Are issues like safety or inclusion or power or rules affecting what is being talked about in ways
that are unrecognised by the group members themselves?
Are such issues affecting the choice of language or symbolism or metaphors employed? For
instance, if a member of the group is holding everybody's attention at length with a description of a
film he saw about a family break up, is this because the group members sense a threat to the
integrity of the group itself which they cannot face discussing openly.
T-group theory might help us with some of these issues.
Norms
Or we might think about the group norms.
We might ask what rules seem to be operating and how were these established?
Who would have the power to change them?
How are they evolving?
What are they seemingly designed to achieve?
Task
Or we might think about the group, in terms of its implicit or explicit task.
Is this a group in which there is a preset agenda or not?
Is this a group in which one person holds the floor or "works" for a time and then another takes
over or is it one in which the members all interact fluidly and continuously?
Is this group concerned with here and now issues or with there and then ones?
Is there a shared sense of purpose?
Dynamics
Or we might think about the group in terms of its psychodynamics.
Then we would ask: What sentiments and motives lie behind the behaviour of the group members?
In what way are processes of rivalry, jealousy, identification, differentiation, power seeking,
projection, dependency, transference, etc. affecting the individuals in this group?
How can the group be understood on the analogy of a family?
Psychoanalytic theory might help.
Functional Approach
Or we might look at the interactions between group members functionally.
How do these interactions relate to the task of the group?
Are they functional or dysfunctional?
Some sociological theory such as Bales Interaction Analysis might help.
Interactions
Or we might look at the interactions qualitatively.
Are emotions expressed?
Are thoughts expressed?
RUJUKAN
Layari internet pada 27/01/2010 di website www.elementsuk.com/libraryofarticles/groupwork.pdf
Groupwork theory
A theory of group dynamics postulates that the group moves through certain phases in a more or less linear fashion albeit with regressive times. The stages are popularly known as:
Forming
Women seeking guidance from leader and seeing who the others are and whether they'll fit in. Issue is inclusion versus exclusion.
Storming
Individuality begins to be asserted. Hostility - towards facilitator for not fulfilling (unrealistic) hopes. Internal competition, conflict.
Norming
Renewed energy and hope, differences tolerated, norms established, harmony valued, facilitator is less relied upon.
Performing
Roles chosen and fulfilled. Getting on with the job. Balance between productivity and interpersonal skills. There may still be setbacks but they don't threaten the groups survival.
Termination
Goal evaluation, future plans, departure, loss expressed. May be regression to patterns of exclusion/inclusion by some in denial that the group is about to end. Sadness, ending ritual/celebration. Excitement about new skills and the future.
RUJUKAN
Layari internet pada 26/10/2010 di website http://www.secasa.com.au/index.php/workers/21/52/1
Forming
Women seeking guidance from leader and seeing who the others are and whether they'll fit in. Issue is inclusion versus exclusion.
Storming
Individuality begins to be asserted. Hostility - towards facilitator for not fulfilling (unrealistic) hopes. Internal competition, conflict.
Norming
Renewed energy and hope, differences tolerated, norms established, harmony valued, facilitator is less relied upon.
Performing
Roles chosen and fulfilled. Getting on with the job. Balance between productivity and interpersonal skills. There may still be setbacks but they don't threaten the groups survival.
Termination
Goal evaluation, future plans, departure, loss expressed. May be regression to patterns of exclusion/inclusion by some in denial that the group is about to end. Sadness, ending ritual/celebration. Excitement about new skills and the future.
RUJUKAN
Layari internet pada 26/10/2010 di website http://www.secasa.com.au/index.php/workers/21/52/1
DEFINISI KERJA KUMPULAN (GROUPWORK)
Groups may be defined in many ways, indeed providing an absolute definition of a group, as with much of the theory around group work, is highly problematic and contestable. However for the purposes of discussing groupwork within a context of working with young people we may define a group as a small gathering of young people. Group work may simplistically be described as the study and application of the processes and outcomes experienced when a small group comes together.
Konopka (1963) defines groupwork as a method of social work that is utilised in order to `help individuals to enhance their social functioning through purposeful group experiences, and to cope more effectively with their personal, group or community problems`. This definition shows a tradition within groupwork of helping individuals with problems. Brown provides a modernised and more comprehensive definition of group work (1994, p.8). He states that `groupwork provides a context in which individuals help each other; it is a method of helping groups as well as helping individuals; and it can enable individuals and groups to influence and change personal, group, organisational and community problems` (original emphasis). He goes on to distinguish between `relatively small and neighbourhood centred` work and `macro, societal and political approaches` within community work, explaining that only the former may be properly classified as groupwork.
Stages of Group Development
Groups, like individuals are each unique with their own experiences and expectations. However many commentators studying group development and dynamics have recognised that group development, as a generalisation, is more predictable than individual behaviour. Thus many theories of group stage development have been cultivated, some linear, others more cyclical, and it must be stressed that no definitive model of group stage development exists.
Two of the most useful theories of group stage development are those discussed by Tuckman (1965), and Rogers paper on encounter groups (1967). These models, like others (for example Heap, 1977) propose that as groups develop and change they pass through stages which may be conceptualised. Tuckman’s model has been used extensively within youth work theory and practice and is an excellent model for attempting to analyse individual and group behaviour. A brief synopsis of each stage is outlined below, with examples from personal practice.
Stage 1: Forming
The first stage of this group process is joining, referred to as engagement by Rogers. This phase involves significant testing, and trial and error. Initial concerns about openness and support within the group are manifested by a lack of cohesion and a difficulty in sharing thoughts, feelings and experiences with each other. An internal appraisal of group value and how each individual belongs to the group are key features of this stage. Anxiety, isolation, inadequacy and frustration are common emotions felt by group members at this early stage in the life of a group, as well as being emotionally threatened by members of the group who are perceived to be stronger or better. Thus the group seeks to create a comfort zone in which individuals are not keen to upset the status quo for fear of alienation.
Oppressive behaviour is least likely within the formation stage of a group as individuals generally look to create a comfort zone and do not wish to rock the boat. Often frustrations will be built upon between individuals who disagree strongly, but this will generally not surface until storming begins.
A knowledge and understanding of the feelings and emotions felt by group members in this stage is helpful, if not essential, to the effective structuring of a programme to work towards the desired outcome for the group. For example both the YAM and PTV groups I had experience with were set up to encourage social interaction and personal development. Having an awareness of group stage theory enabled my colleagues and myself to structure the early encounters for the groups to be;
a) fun and enjoyable – to encourage continued attendance;
b) relaxed - offering the promotion of effective communication and allowing members to get to know each other a little whilst gaining in confidence and trust.
To this end ice breakers, introduction and communication exercisers such as those provided by Brandes and Phillips (1979), Bond (1986), Leech and Wooster (1986) and Dearling and Armstrong (1994) were used. As Dynes describes `[games] stimulate the imagination, make people resourceful and help develop social ability and co-operation` (Dynes, 1990).
Stage 2: Storming
This stage sees group members begin to confront each other as they begin to vie for roles within the group that will help them to belong and to feel valued. Thus as members begin to assert their individual personalities, the comfort of the forming stage begins to come under siege. Members experience personal, intra and inter group conflicts. Aggression and resentment may manifest in this stage and thus if strong personalities emerge and leadership is unresponsive to group and individual needs, the situation may become destructive to the group’ s development. Indeed there is a high potential for individuals to abandon the group during this stage, as for some the pressures created by the group may become too much of a strain.
The potential for oppressive behaviour is strong within the storming phase as group members vie for preferred roles and release frustrations built within the forming period. This personal oppression should be discouraged whilst it is understood that a degree of conflict is necessary if the group is to further develop.
In the YAM group this stage was represented by a rebellious streak within the young people and much of the storming was directed towards the adult leaders. Boundaries within the group were tested as the group explored how far they would be allowed to go and what they could get away with. One or two individuals in turn challenged this behaviour as they felt it was unfair and could jeopardize future activities.
The PTV group’s storming phase was altogether different. Two of the group with strong personalities began to vie for intra-group leadership. Each used their own abilities to strengthen their claim to lead the group, whilst also sabotaging and undermining the other’s efforts in an attempt to usurp the leadership role. This situation caused a degree of infighting and at one point created two sub-groups, one following each of the `pretender` leaders.
It is important to be aware that conflict will take place within all groups, and if handled well this conflict can produce benefits for the group in terms of development, objective and task setting, and ultimate outcome. Thus conflict is not inherently something to be feared or avoided.
Stage 3: Norming
During this stage the group begin to work more constructively together towards formal identified or informal tasks. Roles begin to develop and be allocated within the group and although these may be accepted, some members may not be comfortable with the role or roles which the have been allocated. During this stage sub-groups are likely to form in order that a supportive environment is once more created. Acceptable and unacceptable behaviours within the group are created and reinforced and thus the `norms` for this group become fabricated.
The storming and norming phases of group development are inextricably linked, as it is often through the storming and challenging that acceptable group norms become set.
It is important that a youth worker works hard during this stage to ensure oppression against individuals within the group do not become the acceptable norm, as then all group members will oppress these individuals. Thus, individual oppressions must be challenged and emphasis placed on challenging attitudes and opinions but not group members.
The YAM group settled into group norms quite quickly, however some of the roles that were adopted were challenged by the co-leaders as they were seen to be obstructive to the group and individual’s objectives. One young person (J.) who was often badly behaved at school, was previously known to other group members. As these young people expected poor behaviour from J. this was the role which he adopted. This was challenged within the group context and it was pointed out that alternatives to this behaviour were available.
Stage 4: Performing
This stage sees the group performing effectively with defined roles, in fact at this stage it could be said that the group has transformed into a team. It is now that decisions may be positively challenged or reinforced by the group as a whole. The discomfort of the storming and norming phases has been overcome and the group has a general feeling of unity. This is the best stage for a group to complete tasks, assuming that task, rather than process and individuals, are the focus of the group.
An excellent example of performing within the PTV group came during a residential week. One of the group (A.) admitted to a fear of heights and thus did not want to take part in an abseiling exercise. The whole group supported this decision but offered encouragement and support in order to promote participation. One individual (M.) spent time and energy showing leadership and helped A. to overcome his fears. A. took part in the abseil, being assisted by M. and encouraged by the whole group.
Potential exists within this stage for oppression to begin if one or more group members does not appear to fit in with the group’s view of its task, or is not performing as effectively as expected. Again it is important to challenge this if it occurs and to show how each member can benefit the group, through achievement of task, leadership, reviewing, moving on, or by monitoring the groups process.
Stage 5: Mourning
The final stage in the life of a group ultimately is its termination. Though often overlooked, this stage in group development is equally important to positive outcomes. The ending of a group can be a very unhappy and distressing time for some members, as they may feel some extent of dependency on the group. Garland et al. describe some of the typical responses to the ending phase as:
• Denial – `forgetting` the time of the groups termination.
• Regression – reverting to a less independent state of functioning.
• Need expression – in the hope the group will continue.
• Recapitulation – detailed recall of past experiences within the group.
• Evaluation – detailed discussion on the value of the group experience.
• Flight – destructive denial of any positive benefit of the group, or a positive disengagement towards other interests.
Potential exists within this stage for members to be oppressed as scapegoats, that is blamed or at fault for the ending of the group. This can be minimised by constant focusing and refocusing on group end points and staged celebrations of group achievements.
With the PTV group it was relatively easy to develop strategies to minimise the effects of the groups termination. The group’s life span was structured to a tight time-scale and end point from the outset. This was reinforced by getting the group to maintain a counting down chart which was marked off each day. The end of the group was marked by a large presentation to which friends and relatives were invited. The presentation marked a clear ending for the group from day one, whilst also serving as a celebration of all the groups achievements during its existence. Thus the end did not come as a `surprise`, and was something to look forward to.
As we have seen the value of a theoretical understanding of conceptualising this group stage theory in youth work and other helping professions, lies in enabling group workers to `tune into the group’s processes and respond appropriately` (Preston-Shoot, 1987).
Group Leadership
Effective groups should promote the value of all of its constituent members. One of the keys to establishing this end is competent leadership.
Leadership can be and has been defined in many ways. It is seen as ` the act of commanding and directing, the actions of leaders, the process by which groups achieve their goals, the antithesis of followership` (Sessoms and Stevenson, 1981, p. 5). Leadership can be seen as the act of `moving people towards goal achievement`, and may be viewed as an interaction between leaders, followers and goals (see Fig. 1, above), thus it may be described as a process (Sessoms and Stevenson, ibid). Fig. 1. - Source: Sessoms and Stevenson (1981)
So `In a broad sense, leadership may be described as influence` (Barker et al, 1979, p. 224), thus the individual who will often be seen as the leader of a youth group, that is the adult, often may in fact not be the most influential member of the group.
Effective leadership depends on the balancing of the three variables in diagram Fig. 2. (left), thus the groups task, individual needs and group maintenance must all be considered.
Fig. 2. - Source: Adapted from John Adair (1988) Effective Leadership
Fundamentally within youth work we must recognise the `possibility of all members contributing to the process by which groups seek and achieve goals` (Barker et al, 1979, p. 226-229). Thus leadership is a dynamic variable and any `person who performs actions which move a group toward its goal and/or maintain the group more frequently and more effectively than other group members` may be identified as group leaders (Barker et al, 1979, ibid.).
Leadership is often described within a context of three differing styles, laissez faire, democratic and autocratic (or authoritarian).
Simplistically the three styles can be described as;
Laissez faire – letting members do pretty much as they please without the leader offering judgement on other members decisions. This works best when a well functioning group, i.e. one than may be in a performing phase, is working towards a well defined task. This method is exceptionally difficult if more than a handful of group members are present and is often used within sub-groups developed to perform specific sub-tasks. For example the PTV team would use this style for brainstorming specific ideas for projects, as the non-judgemental attitude facilitated more group responses.
Democratic – consultation and discussion takes place before decisions are made. This allows group members to have their say but does not guarantee that these feelings will be acted upon. This style is an ideal method of leadership within youth work as the group is more likely to contribute to the decision making process and also the group is more likely to buy-in to decisions which are made. Again this style works best with smaller groups, the larger the group the longer the decision making processes will tend to become. It is often preferable to separate a very large group into sub-groups to ensure all have a chance to input into decision making and then reconvene all group members into a plenary session where all ideas can be fed back and shared, resulting in an ultimate group decision. This style was used within the PTV group in order to achieve a shared sense of belonging within the group and to get all the members to `buy-in` to completing the tasks in hand.
Autocratic or authoritarian – one leader is the sole person involved in making decisions within the group, the information is passed on to the group rather than options being discussed openly. This is a style that I have personally seldom used as it is not ideal for achieving the educational aims of youth work. However I am aware that very large groups may find an autocratic leader can speed up a decision making process. This can be important when issues such as the group’s physical safety are involved, for example if a group is on expedition on the side of a mountain and the weather becomes rough, it may become necessary to enforce a quick decision to retreat, to ensure group safety. The process of this decision making can then be evaluated and debated once the group is in a safe setting.
Roles within Groups
Each individual within a group has a role to play in the development of that group to a greater or lesser extent. Through observation, understanding of difference, awareness of personal resources and effective communication (Douglas, 1995), each member may affect group processes and individual emotions. Roles develop within groups both through formal appointment and because of the personal characteristics and interpersonal relationships that develop between members. Roles which develop can be constructive and support the group and its members in achieving its goals, or can be destructive and work against the overall group aims. Individuals within the group can develop several roles and at times these may conflict. For example a PTV member who was designated as leader for a specific task, also played a clown and was fond of practical jokes. The fooling around led to a lack of trust from other group members creating a conflict with the leadership role.
As the group begins to develop an understanding of four things can be observed:
Observation: the way we behave is based upon what we observe of ourselves, and what we make of others and their reactions to us.
Differences: personally and socially generated; the effects they have on behaviour and understanding.
Resources: frequently stemming from difference but are the source of potential power for a group and an individual.
Communication: considered to be natural but subject to many barriers that remain largely unknown unless a conscious effort is made to find them:
(Douglas, 1995, p. 80-97)
Through supportive roles, groups may play a part in reducing oppression generated externally to the group. Groupwork can be used as a medium for oppressed groups to `help these groups adjust in society`, and moreover to help society to adjust towards these groups. This can be achieved by `individual rehabilitation` in which we can `help individuals to adjust to social life and manage … tension … gain confidence, high self esteem`, and in `getting and keeping employment etc.`. `Societal or community rehabilitation` involves `helping the society to have meaningful contact` with individuals and groups which are discriminated against and oppressed (Osei-Hwedie, Mwansa, and Mufune, 1990, p. 188).
Preston-Shoot describes groupwork creating a `sense of belonging and mutual identity` encouraging `the formation of relationships which foster mutual identification and influence`, thus feelings of isolation and singularity with issues of difference and oppression may be reduced. Also, the group may be encouraged to use its internal resources to move towards individual or group `problem-resolution`, reducing feelings of helplessness, building self worth, and discouraging worker dependency (Preston-Shoot, 1987, p. 6-28). Smith concurs with this view of the suitability of groupwork, stating `Groups are obvious sites of interaction and within them a sense of connectedness or community with others can be fostered` (Smith, 1994, p.111). This `connectedness` is a valuable tool with which to challenge discrimination and oppression, for as Piven and Cloward argue, it is only when we act collectively that change can begin (Piven and Cloward, 1993).
Conclusion: Group Work – Double Edged Sword?
To state that group work is not an exact science is something of an understatement. As we have seen, it is problematic to even define what is meant by a group as no absolute definition exists. Similarly most, if not all, concepts within group work theory can be, and are, contested.
Groups are extremely important in the lives of all individuals. Johnson and Johnson (1975, p1-2) state `many of our goals can be achieved only with the cooperation and coordination of others`.
However `the success of any group depends on the ability of its members to exchange ideas freely and to feel involved in the life and decisions of the group` (Massallay, 1990). All groups within youth work have goals, i.e. a future state of affairs. It is important that short term and long term goals are set realistically if the group is to develop and function effectively. These functions are achieved through the direction of leadership and the development of individual roles within each group.
A group is said to be successful if it:
1. accomplishes group tasks
2. maintains the group internally, and;
3. develops and adapts to improve effectiveness.
(Massallay, 1990)
Groupwork can be used as an effective tool for many youth work situations, not least of which is as a medium for challenging oppression both within groups and individuals. Thus, we have seen the emergence and development of girls issue groups and black young people’s projects that offer mutual support as well as working to challenge oppression. Yet we have seen that through the development stages of a groups life there are many opportunities for individuals to develop and focus oppressive behaviour internally within a group.
A grasp of theoretical understanding of group behaviour and functioning can help to explain individual and group behaviour, and help us to achieve our ultimate aim as youth workers, that of informal education. It is important not to treat group work as an exact science with definitive answers. Indeed many of the questions we must ask ourselves are unclear, thus the answers are a best guess, or a benchmark that we can develop on and work around.
Finally, let us consider briefly the historical context of group work development and the purpose it has not only within youth work, but society at large. As Taylor reminds us `A moment’s reflection shows that the social groupwork beloved of liberalism is the product of the American capitalist concern to develop more sophisticated management techniques` (Taylor, 1987, p. 140). Let us be careful to use group work to promote democracy and not fall into the trap of using group work as yet another tool for promoting social control in a capitalistic state.
RUJUKAN
Layari internet 26/01/2010 http://youthworkcentral.tripod.com/sean3.htm
Brown, A. (1994) Groupwork 3rd Edition Great Yarmouth: Ashgate Publishing
Konopka (1963) defines groupwork as a method of social work that is utilised in order to `help individuals to enhance their social functioning through purposeful group experiences, and to cope more effectively with their personal, group or community problems`. This definition shows a tradition within groupwork of helping individuals with problems. Brown provides a modernised and more comprehensive definition of group work (1994, p.8). He states that `groupwork provides a context in which individuals help each other; it is a method of helping groups as well as helping individuals; and it can enable individuals and groups to influence and change personal, group, organisational and community problems` (original emphasis). He goes on to distinguish between `relatively small and neighbourhood centred` work and `macro, societal and political approaches` within community work, explaining that only the former may be properly classified as groupwork.
Stages of Group Development
Groups, like individuals are each unique with their own experiences and expectations. However many commentators studying group development and dynamics have recognised that group development, as a generalisation, is more predictable than individual behaviour. Thus many theories of group stage development have been cultivated, some linear, others more cyclical, and it must be stressed that no definitive model of group stage development exists.
Two of the most useful theories of group stage development are those discussed by Tuckman (1965), and Rogers paper on encounter groups (1967). These models, like others (for example Heap, 1977) propose that as groups develop and change they pass through stages which may be conceptualised. Tuckman’s model has been used extensively within youth work theory and practice and is an excellent model for attempting to analyse individual and group behaviour. A brief synopsis of each stage is outlined below, with examples from personal practice.
Stage 1: Forming
The first stage of this group process is joining, referred to as engagement by Rogers. This phase involves significant testing, and trial and error. Initial concerns about openness and support within the group are manifested by a lack of cohesion and a difficulty in sharing thoughts, feelings and experiences with each other. An internal appraisal of group value and how each individual belongs to the group are key features of this stage. Anxiety, isolation, inadequacy and frustration are common emotions felt by group members at this early stage in the life of a group, as well as being emotionally threatened by members of the group who are perceived to be stronger or better. Thus the group seeks to create a comfort zone in which individuals are not keen to upset the status quo for fear of alienation.
Oppressive behaviour is least likely within the formation stage of a group as individuals generally look to create a comfort zone and do not wish to rock the boat. Often frustrations will be built upon between individuals who disagree strongly, but this will generally not surface until storming begins.
A knowledge and understanding of the feelings and emotions felt by group members in this stage is helpful, if not essential, to the effective structuring of a programme to work towards the desired outcome for the group. For example both the YAM and PTV groups I had experience with were set up to encourage social interaction and personal development. Having an awareness of group stage theory enabled my colleagues and myself to structure the early encounters for the groups to be;
a) fun and enjoyable – to encourage continued attendance;
b) relaxed - offering the promotion of effective communication and allowing members to get to know each other a little whilst gaining in confidence and trust.
To this end ice breakers, introduction and communication exercisers such as those provided by Brandes and Phillips (1979), Bond (1986), Leech and Wooster (1986) and Dearling and Armstrong (1994) were used. As Dynes describes `[games] stimulate the imagination, make people resourceful and help develop social ability and co-operation` (Dynes, 1990).
Stage 2: Storming
This stage sees group members begin to confront each other as they begin to vie for roles within the group that will help them to belong and to feel valued. Thus as members begin to assert their individual personalities, the comfort of the forming stage begins to come under siege. Members experience personal, intra and inter group conflicts. Aggression and resentment may manifest in this stage and thus if strong personalities emerge and leadership is unresponsive to group and individual needs, the situation may become destructive to the group’ s development. Indeed there is a high potential for individuals to abandon the group during this stage, as for some the pressures created by the group may become too much of a strain.
The potential for oppressive behaviour is strong within the storming phase as group members vie for preferred roles and release frustrations built within the forming period. This personal oppression should be discouraged whilst it is understood that a degree of conflict is necessary if the group is to further develop.
In the YAM group this stage was represented by a rebellious streak within the young people and much of the storming was directed towards the adult leaders. Boundaries within the group were tested as the group explored how far they would be allowed to go and what they could get away with. One or two individuals in turn challenged this behaviour as they felt it was unfair and could jeopardize future activities.
The PTV group’s storming phase was altogether different. Two of the group with strong personalities began to vie for intra-group leadership. Each used their own abilities to strengthen their claim to lead the group, whilst also sabotaging and undermining the other’s efforts in an attempt to usurp the leadership role. This situation caused a degree of infighting and at one point created two sub-groups, one following each of the `pretender` leaders.
It is important to be aware that conflict will take place within all groups, and if handled well this conflict can produce benefits for the group in terms of development, objective and task setting, and ultimate outcome. Thus conflict is not inherently something to be feared or avoided.
Stage 3: Norming
During this stage the group begin to work more constructively together towards formal identified or informal tasks. Roles begin to develop and be allocated within the group and although these may be accepted, some members may not be comfortable with the role or roles which the have been allocated. During this stage sub-groups are likely to form in order that a supportive environment is once more created. Acceptable and unacceptable behaviours within the group are created and reinforced and thus the `norms` for this group become fabricated.
The storming and norming phases of group development are inextricably linked, as it is often through the storming and challenging that acceptable group norms become set.
It is important that a youth worker works hard during this stage to ensure oppression against individuals within the group do not become the acceptable norm, as then all group members will oppress these individuals. Thus, individual oppressions must be challenged and emphasis placed on challenging attitudes and opinions but not group members.
The YAM group settled into group norms quite quickly, however some of the roles that were adopted were challenged by the co-leaders as they were seen to be obstructive to the group and individual’s objectives. One young person (J.) who was often badly behaved at school, was previously known to other group members. As these young people expected poor behaviour from J. this was the role which he adopted. This was challenged within the group context and it was pointed out that alternatives to this behaviour were available.
Stage 4: Performing
This stage sees the group performing effectively with defined roles, in fact at this stage it could be said that the group has transformed into a team. It is now that decisions may be positively challenged or reinforced by the group as a whole. The discomfort of the storming and norming phases has been overcome and the group has a general feeling of unity. This is the best stage for a group to complete tasks, assuming that task, rather than process and individuals, are the focus of the group.
An excellent example of performing within the PTV group came during a residential week. One of the group (A.) admitted to a fear of heights and thus did not want to take part in an abseiling exercise. The whole group supported this decision but offered encouragement and support in order to promote participation. One individual (M.) spent time and energy showing leadership and helped A. to overcome his fears. A. took part in the abseil, being assisted by M. and encouraged by the whole group.
Potential exists within this stage for oppression to begin if one or more group members does not appear to fit in with the group’s view of its task, or is not performing as effectively as expected. Again it is important to challenge this if it occurs and to show how each member can benefit the group, through achievement of task, leadership, reviewing, moving on, or by monitoring the groups process.
Stage 5: Mourning
The final stage in the life of a group ultimately is its termination. Though often overlooked, this stage in group development is equally important to positive outcomes. The ending of a group can be a very unhappy and distressing time for some members, as they may feel some extent of dependency on the group. Garland et al. describe some of the typical responses to the ending phase as:
• Denial – `forgetting` the time of the groups termination.
• Regression – reverting to a less independent state of functioning.
• Need expression – in the hope the group will continue.
• Recapitulation – detailed recall of past experiences within the group.
• Evaluation – detailed discussion on the value of the group experience.
• Flight – destructive denial of any positive benefit of the group, or a positive disengagement towards other interests.
Potential exists within this stage for members to be oppressed as scapegoats, that is blamed or at fault for the ending of the group. This can be minimised by constant focusing and refocusing on group end points and staged celebrations of group achievements.
With the PTV group it was relatively easy to develop strategies to minimise the effects of the groups termination. The group’s life span was structured to a tight time-scale and end point from the outset. This was reinforced by getting the group to maintain a counting down chart which was marked off each day. The end of the group was marked by a large presentation to which friends and relatives were invited. The presentation marked a clear ending for the group from day one, whilst also serving as a celebration of all the groups achievements during its existence. Thus the end did not come as a `surprise`, and was something to look forward to.
As we have seen the value of a theoretical understanding of conceptualising this group stage theory in youth work and other helping professions, lies in enabling group workers to `tune into the group’s processes and respond appropriately` (Preston-Shoot, 1987).
Group Leadership
Effective groups should promote the value of all of its constituent members. One of the keys to establishing this end is competent leadership.
Leadership can be and has been defined in many ways. It is seen as ` the act of commanding and directing, the actions of leaders, the process by which groups achieve their goals, the antithesis of followership` (Sessoms and Stevenson, 1981, p. 5). Leadership can be seen as the act of `moving people towards goal achievement`, and may be viewed as an interaction between leaders, followers and goals (see Fig. 1, above), thus it may be described as a process (Sessoms and Stevenson, ibid). Fig. 1. - Source: Sessoms and Stevenson (1981)
So `In a broad sense, leadership may be described as influence` (Barker et al, 1979, p. 224), thus the individual who will often be seen as the leader of a youth group, that is the adult, often may in fact not be the most influential member of the group.
Effective leadership depends on the balancing of the three variables in diagram Fig. 2. (left), thus the groups task, individual needs and group maintenance must all be considered.
Fig. 2. - Source: Adapted from John Adair (1988) Effective Leadership
Fundamentally within youth work we must recognise the `possibility of all members contributing to the process by which groups seek and achieve goals` (Barker et al, 1979, p. 226-229). Thus leadership is a dynamic variable and any `person who performs actions which move a group toward its goal and/or maintain the group more frequently and more effectively than other group members` may be identified as group leaders (Barker et al, 1979, ibid.).
Leadership is often described within a context of three differing styles, laissez faire, democratic and autocratic (or authoritarian).
Simplistically the three styles can be described as;
Laissez faire – letting members do pretty much as they please without the leader offering judgement on other members decisions. This works best when a well functioning group, i.e. one than may be in a performing phase, is working towards a well defined task. This method is exceptionally difficult if more than a handful of group members are present and is often used within sub-groups developed to perform specific sub-tasks. For example the PTV team would use this style for brainstorming specific ideas for projects, as the non-judgemental attitude facilitated more group responses.
Democratic – consultation and discussion takes place before decisions are made. This allows group members to have their say but does not guarantee that these feelings will be acted upon. This style is an ideal method of leadership within youth work as the group is more likely to contribute to the decision making process and also the group is more likely to buy-in to decisions which are made. Again this style works best with smaller groups, the larger the group the longer the decision making processes will tend to become. It is often preferable to separate a very large group into sub-groups to ensure all have a chance to input into decision making and then reconvene all group members into a plenary session where all ideas can be fed back and shared, resulting in an ultimate group decision. This style was used within the PTV group in order to achieve a shared sense of belonging within the group and to get all the members to `buy-in` to completing the tasks in hand.
Autocratic or authoritarian – one leader is the sole person involved in making decisions within the group, the information is passed on to the group rather than options being discussed openly. This is a style that I have personally seldom used as it is not ideal for achieving the educational aims of youth work. However I am aware that very large groups may find an autocratic leader can speed up a decision making process. This can be important when issues such as the group’s physical safety are involved, for example if a group is on expedition on the side of a mountain and the weather becomes rough, it may become necessary to enforce a quick decision to retreat, to ensure group safety. The process of this decision making can then be evaluated and debated once the group is in a safe setting.
Roles within Groups
Each individual within a group has a role to play in the development of that group to a greater or lesser extent. Through observation, understanding of difference, awareness of personal resources and effective communication (Douglas, 1995), each member may affect group processes and individual emotions. Roles develop within groups both through formal appointment and because of the personal characteristics and interpersonal relationships that develop between members. Roles which develop can be constructive and support the group and its members in achieving its goals, or can be destructive and work against the overall group aims. Individuals within the group can develop several roles and at times these may conflict. For example a PTV member who was designated as leader for a specific task, also played a clown and was fond of practical jokes. The fooling around led to a lack of trust from other group members creating a conflict with the leadership role.
As the group begins to develop an understanding of four things can be observed:
Observation: the way we behave is based upon what we observe of ourselves, and what we make of others and their reactions to us.
Differences: personally and socially generated; the effects they have on behaviour and understanding.
Resources: frequently stemming from difference but are the source of potential power for a group and an individual.
Communication: considered to be natural but subject to many barriers that remain largely unknown unless a conscious effort is made to find them:
(Douglas, 1995, p. 80-97)
Through supportive roles, groups may play a part in reducing oppression generated externally to the group. Groupwork can be used as a medium for oppressed groups to `help these groups adjust in society`, and moreover to help society to adjust towards these groups. This can be achieved by `individual rehabilitation` in which we can `help individuals to adjust to social life and manage … tension … gain confidence, high self esteem`, and in `getting and keeping employment etc.`. `Societal or community rehabilitation` involves `helping the society to have meaningful contact` with individuals and groups which are discriminated against and oppressed (Osei-Hwedie, Mwansa, and Mufune, 1990, p. 188).
Preston-Shoot describes groupwork creating a `sense of belonging and mutual identity` encouraging `the formation of relationships which foster mutual identification and influence`, thus feelings of isolation and singularity with issues of difference and oppression may be reduced. Also, the group may be encouraged to use its internal resources to move towards individual or group `problem-resolution`, reducing feelings of helplessness, building self worth, and discouraging worker dependency (Preston-Shoot, 1987, p. 6-28). Smith concurs with this view of the suitability of groupwork, stating `Groups are obvious sites of interaction and within them a sense of connectedness or community with others can be fostered` (Smith, 1994, p.111). This `connectedness` is a valuable tool with which to challenge discrimination and oppression, for as Piven and Cloward argue, it is only when we act collectively that change can begin (Piven and Cloward, 1993).
Conclusion: Group Work – Double Edged Sword?
To state that group work is not an exact science is something of an understatement. As we have seen, it is problematic to even define what is meant by a group as no absolute definition exists. Similarly most, if not all, concepts within group work theory can be, and are, contested.
Groups are extremely important in the lives of all individuals. Johnson and Johnson (1975, p1-2) state `many of our goals can be achieved only with the cooperation and coordination of others`.
However `the success of any group depends on the ability of its members to exchange ideas freely and to feel involved in the life and decisions of the group` (Massallay, 1990). All groups within youth work have goals, i.e. a future state of affairs. It is important that short term and long term goals are set realistically if the group is to develop and function effectively. These functions are achieved through the direction of leadership and the development of individual roles within each group.
A group is said to be successful if it:
1. accomplishes group tasks
2. maintains the group internally, and;
3. develops and adapts to improve effectiveness.
(Massallay, 1990)
Groupwork can be used as an effective tool for many youth work situations, not least of which is as a medium for challenging oppression both within groups and individuals. Thus, we have seen the emergence and development of girls issue groups and black young people’s projects that offer mutual support as well as working to challenge oppression. Yet we have seen that through the development stages of a groups life there are many opportunities for individuals to develop and focus oppressive behaviour internally within a group.
A grasp of theoretical understanding of group behaviour and functioning can help to explain individual and group behaviour, and help us to achieve our ultimate aim as youth workers, that of informal education. It is important not to treat group work as an exact science with definitive answers. Indeed many of the questions we must ask ourselves are unclear, thus the answers are a best guess, or a benchmark that we can develop on and work around.
Finally, let us consider briefly the historical context of group work development and the purpose it has not only within youth work, but society at large. As Taylor reminds us `A moment’s reflection shows that the social groupwork beloved of liberalism is the product of the American capitalist concern to develop more sophisticated management techniques` (Taylor, 1987, p. 140). Let us be careful to use group work to promote democracy and not fall into the trap of using group work as yet another tool for promoting social control in a capitalistic state.
RUJUKAN
Layari internet 26/01/2010 http://youthworkcentral.tripod.com/sean3.htm
Brown, A. (1994) Groupwork 3rd Edition Great Yarmouth: Ashgate Publishing
DEFINISI KERJA KES
Pelapor kerja kes Saintifik ialah Mary Richmond ( dalam Skidmore et al., 1994) menyatakan bahawa kerja kes sosial mengandungi proses membangunkan personaliti melalui penyesuaian kesedaran-kesedaran yang terlibat secara individu dan antara manusia dengan persekitaran sosial mereka.
Skidmore et al.’ (1997) pula mendefinisikan kerja kes sebagai satu kaedah menolong manusia berdasarkan pengetahuan, pemahaman dan aplikasi penggunaan teknik kemahiran untuk membantu manusia menyelesaikan masalah atau masalah persekitaran melalui hubungan bersemuka ( face to face).
Samir Muhazzab Amin & Winny Abdul (2009). Pengantar Kerja Sosial. Kuala Lumpur: Utusan Publications & Distributors Sdn Bhd.
Skidmore et al.’ (1997) pula mendefinisikan kerja kes sebagai satu kaedah menolong manusia berdasarkan pengetahuan, pemahaman dan aplikasi penggunaan teknik kemahiran untuk membantu manusia menyelesaikan masalah atau masalah persekitaran melalui hubungan bersemuka ( face to face).
Samir Muhazzab Amin & Winny Abdul (2009). Pengantar Kerja Sosial. Kuala Lumpur: Utusan Publications & Distributors Sdn Bhd.
Jumaat, 1 Januari 2010
Kerja sosial
Apa itu Praktis kerja sosial?
Kerja sosial adalah satu profesion meliputi perkhidmatan memberi tumpuan kepada menanggani masalah, meningkatkan kefungsian sosial, meningkatkan kapasiti serta menggalakkan pencapaian taraf kehidupan berkualiti untuk individu, keluarga, kumpulan dan komuniti. Kerja sosial menjadi satu profesion yang memberi penekanan terhadap kepentingan individu dan masyarakat dengan membekalkan perkhidmatan profesional berteraskan pengetahuan kerja sosial, nilai dan prinsip kerja sosial, etika profesion dan intervensi.
NASW (National Association of Social Work) – 1973 - Kerja sosial merupakan aktiviti profesional untuk menolong individu, kumpulan atau komuniti untuk meningkatkan atau memulihkan keupayaan mereka bagi mencapai kefungsian sosial dan seterusnya membentuk “societal” yang baik bagi mencapai matlamat masing – masing. Skidmore (1994) - Satu “art”, sains dan profesion yang menolong manusia untuk menyelesaikan masalah individu, kumpulan dan komuniti melalui amalan – amalan kerja sosial. Amalan ini termasuklah kerja kes, kerja kumpulan, organisasi, komuniti, pentadbiran dan juga penyelidikan. Boehm (1959) – Council on Social Work Education - Berbentuk “Functional” Kerja sosial bertujuan meningkatkan kefungsian sosial individu sama ada berseorangan atau berkumpulan melalui aktiviti yang memfokuskan kepada perhubungan sosial mereka (interaksi individu dengan individu lain dan juga persekitaran)
Morales & Sheafor, (1998) – Kerja sosial adalah satu aktiviti profesional yang membantu individu, kelompok atau masyarakat untuk meningkatkan atau membaiki kapasiti mereka bagi memenuhi keperluan sosial dan mewujudkan satu keadaan yang kondusif bagi mencapai tujuan tersebut. Skidmore et. al, (2000) – Kerja sosial adalah satu ‘art’, sains dan profesion yang menolong menyelesaikan masalah individu, kumpulan dan komuniti melalui amalam kerja sosial. Center for Human Rights UN, (1994) – Kerja sosial adalah satu profesion bertujuan menghasilkan perubahan sosial kepada masyarakat secara umumnya dan perkembangan individu secara dasarnya.
Apa itu Praktis kerja sosial individu dan kumpulan ?
Praktis dengan individu melibatkan praktis kerja sosial di peringkat mikro. Intervensi dalam kerja sosial klinikal memberi penekanan kepada peningkatan dan penyimbangan fungsi psikologi individu, keluarga dan kumpulan yang melibatkan kedua-dua kaedah iaitu pengubahan dan pencegahan. Intervensi ini dijalankan untuk melihat arah dan corak intervensi antara perseorangan, dinamik intrafizik, sumber sokongan dan juga corak pengurusan kehidupan klien. Melalui intervensi ini, kita akan dapat menilai keperluan dan boleh merancang program atau aktiviti yang perlu diberikan kepada klien.
Kerja Sosial Kumpulan didefinasikan sebagai dua atau beberapa orang individu yang berinteraksi secara bersemuka, yang mempunyai kesedaran terhadap keahlian mereka dalam kumpulan, setiap ahlinya sedar akan kewujudan hubungan, sedar akan haknya dan sedar mengenai kebergantungan yang positif untuk mereka sama-sama mencapai matlamat yang utama ( Johnson dan Johnson,1997).
Menurut Marjorie Murphy (1959), Kerja sosial kumpulan ialah kaedah mengemukakan perkhidmatan kepada individu dengan menyediakan pengalaman dalam kumpulan. Selain itu, ia juga memfokuskan kepada perkembangan individu menerusi potensi individu, perkembangan perhubungan dan kecekapan kefungsian sosial serta tingkah laku sosial yang disedari sebagai tujuan kerja sosial kumpulan. Kerja sosial kumpulan juga merupakan kaedah generik yang boleh digunakan dalam situasi yang berbeza. Seterusnya kaedah yang digunakan termasuklah perhubungan antara pekerja dengan ahli dan aktiviti kumpulan. Pekerja secara serentak menggunakan perhubungan dengan ahli dan kumpulan secara keseluruhannya. Pekerja bekerja sebagai enabler dengan kedua-keduanya berperanan membantu ahli dan kumpulan untuk menggunakan dirinya berbeza-beza selaras dengan objektif spesifik dan penilaiannya mengenai keperluan, minat dan keupayaan ahli kumpulan.
Rujukan:
Samir Muhazzab Amin dan Winny Abdul, 2009. Pengantar Kerja Sosial. Kuala Lumpur: Utusan Publication & Distributions Sdn Bhd.
Samir Muhazzab Amin dan Winny Abdul, 2008. Kemahiran Praktis Kerja Sosial. Selangor: Baraplas Kreatif Enterprise
Kerja sosial adalah satu profesion meliputi perkhidmatan memberi tumpuan kepada menanggani masalah, meningkatkan kefungsian sosial, meningkatkan kapasiti serta menggalakkan pencapaian taraf kehidupan berkualiti untuk individu, keluarga, kumpulan dan komuniti. Kerja sosial menjadi satu profesion yang memberi penekanan terhadap kepentingan individu dan masyarakat dengan membekalkan perkhidmatan profesional berteraskan pengetahuan kerja sosial, nilai dan prinsip kerja sosial, etika profesion dan intervensi.
NASW (National Association of Social Work) – 1973 - Kerja sosial merupakan aktiviti profesional untuk menolong individu, kumpulan atau komuniti untuk meningkatkan atau memulihkan keupayaan mereka bagi mencapai kefungsian sosial dan seterusnya membentuk “societal” yang baik bagi mencapai matlamat masing – masing. Skidmore (1994) - Satu “art”, sains dan profesion yang menolong manusia untuk menyelesaikan masalah individu, kumpulan dan komuniti melalui amalan – amalan kerja sosial. Amalan ini termasuklah kerja kes, kerja kumpulan, organisasi, komuniti, pentadbiran dan juga penyelidikan. Boehm (1959) – Council on Social Work Education - Berbentuk “Functional” Kerja sosial bertujuan meningkatkan kefungsian sosial individu sama ada berseorangan atau berkumpulan melalui aktiviti yang memfokuskan kepada perhubungan sosial mereka (interaksi individu dengan individu lain dan juga persekitaran)
Morales & Sheafor, (1998) – Kerja sosial adalah satu aktiviti profesional yang membantu individu, kelompok atau masyarakat untuk meningkatkan atau membaiki kapasiti mereka bagi memenuhi keperluan sosial dan mewujudkan satu keadaan yang kondusif bagi mencapai tujuan tersebut. Skidmore et. al, (2000) – Kerja sosial adalah satu ‘art’, sains dan profesion yang menolong menyelesaikan masalah individu, kumpulan dan komuniti melalui amalam kerja sosial. Center for Human Rights UN, (1994) – Kerja sosial adalah satu profesion bertujuan menghasilkan perubahan sosial kepada masyarakat secara umumnya dan perkembangan individu secara dasarnya.
Apa itu Praktis kerja sosial individu dan kumpulan ?
Praktis dengan individu melibatkan praktis kerja sosial di peringkat mikro. Intervensi dalam kerja sosial klinikal memberi penekanan kepada peningkatan dan penyimbangan fungsi psikologi individu, keluarga dan kumpulan yang melibatkan kedua-dua kaedah iaitu pengubahan dan pencegahan. Intervensi ini dijalankan untuk melihat arah dan corak intervensi antara perseorangan, dinamik intrafizik, sumber sokongan dan juga corak pengurusan kehidupan klien. Melalui intervensi ini, kita akan dapat menilai keperluan dan boleh merancang program atau aktiviti yang perlu diberikan kepada klien.
Kerja Sosial Kumpulan didefinasikan sebagai dua atau beberapa orang individu yang berinteraksi secara bersemuka, yang mempunyai kesedaran terhadap keahlian mereka dalam kumpulan, setiap ahlinya sedar akan kewujudan hubungan, sedar akan haknya dan sedar mengenai kebergantungan yang positif untuk mereka sama-sama mencapai matlamat yang utama ( Johnson dan Johnson,1997).
Menurut Marjorie Murphy (1959), Kerja sosial kumpulan ialah kaedah mengemukakan perkhidmatan kepada individu dengan menyediakan pengalaman dalam kumpulan. Selain itu, ia juga memfokuskan kepada perkembangan individu menerusi potensi individu, perkembangan perhubungan dan kecekapan kefungsian sosial serta tingkah laku sosial yang disedari sebagai tujuan kerja sosial kumpulan. Kerja sosial kumpulan juga merupakan kaedah generik yang boleh digunakan dalam situasi yang berbeza. Seterusnya kaedah yang digunakan termasuklah perhubungan antara pekerja dengan ahli dan aktiviti kumpulan. Pekerja secara serentak menggunakan perhubungan dengan ahli dan kumpulan secara keseluruhannya. Pekerja bekerja sebagai enabler dengan kedua-keduanya berperanan membantu ahli dan kumpulan untuk menggunakan dirinya berbeza-beza selaras dengan objektif spesifik dan penilaiannya mengenai keperluan, minat dan keupayaan ahli kumpulan.
Rujukan:
Samir Muhazzab Amin dan Winny Abdul, 2009. Pengantar Kerja Sosial. Kuala Lumpur: Utusan Publication & Distributions Sdn Bhd.
Samir Muhazzab Amin dan Winny Abdul, 2008. Kemahiran Praktis Kerja Sosial. Selangor: Baraplas Kreatif Enterprise
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